Remains widespread in Europe, mostly coastal but also found in freshwater habitats. Implicated as a key vector of malaria during the twentieth century.
Endemic to Japan, north-eastern China, the Republic of Korea (South Korea) and parts of Russia, a vector for Japanese encephalitis virus in parts of Russia.
Although not an important arboviral vector, can be competent vector for West Nile virus, La Crosse virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, Saint Louis encephalitis virus, and Eastern equine encephalitis virus.
Ixodes ricinus are sensitive to climatic conditions, requiring a relative humidity of 80%, they are primarily observed across Europe in deciduous woodland and mixed forest.
Cholera is an acute diarrhoeal infection caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholera of serogroups O1 or O139. Humans are the only relevant reservoir, even though Vibrios can survive for a long time in coastal waters contaminated by human excreta.